Sport Shoes, Industry Sector TEXTILE

HISTORY

In the ancient Olympic games the competitors ran barefoot. However as the Greek empire extended many athletes from colder climates came to race wearing sandals. At first spectators and barefoot competitors treated these as a novelty and sign of parochialism. As soon as shod athletes became winners then public opinion changed and the wearing of sandals was viewed with great suspicion and associated with cheats. Eventually once it was recognised the sole of the sandal increased ground traction and propelled the leg forward with greater efficiency most athletes adopted the running sandal. The sole of the sandal needed to be securely attached to the foot and this necessitated leather thongs wrapped to the ankle and sometimes above. Between the Greek and Roman Civilisations there existed a small, almost obscure civilisation known as the Estruscans. They lived in North Italy and were well known for many crafts including sandal making. The Estruscans developed a technique to attach the sole of the sandal to the upper of the shoe with metal tacks. Before this sandals broke easily. As soon as tacks could hold the shoes together it coincidentally offered greater sole traction to the ground and the crude running shoe was developed.

The most revolutionary sporting shoe has been the plimsoll. Its origins are linked to the 19th century railways and the new habit of working class city people taking annual trips to the seaside. In the 1860s when people visited the seashores their old working boots seemed out of character and a new lightweight, cheap shoe was introduced in its stead. These were called sand shoes. At first the cotton canvas topped shoe had a sole made from leather, jute or rope. These were flimsy and wore out quickly. When the New Liverpool Rubber Company developed a light shoe, which combined a cotton canvas top to a rubber sole, the sand shoe had come of age. Still vulnerable to separation a thin rubber band was wrapped around the whole shoe trapping the join between the canvas and rubber sole. The more robust sand shoe was called a plimsoll because it resembled the new white plimsoll lines on ships (1876). Plimsolls wore well, were cool in the summer and dried quickly after becoming wet. One particular attractive feature of the robust plimsoll was washing it and painting with chalkwhite. This gave the outward appearance of a more expensive tennis and croquet shoe. White plimsolls were popular with Victorian promenaders and as the middle classes sought more and more leisure activities in the form of sport, the plimsoll evolved into many forms.

The development of the plimsoll meant by the turn of the century sneakers and plimsolls were widely worn by children. Specialty shoes for the bicycle boom of the 1860s and 70s meant the introduction of heel-less shoes for cyclists. These were lightweight and had eight or ten eyelets. The shoe was extensively advertised in 1890s.

Spiked shoes for running were developed in 1852 and by 1894 the Spalding Company catalogue featured three grades of spiked footwear. Low cut and made from kangaroo leather uppers, the soles had six spikes. These shoes cost $6.00 This was very expensive at the time with an average family of four survived on $11 per week.

Joseph William Foster founded the first sports shoe company in Bolton, UK in the 1890's. His grandson later took over in 1958 and renamed the firm, Reebok. The Bolton based company in England made shoes for Lord Burghley in the 1924 Olympics. These were thin leather shoe made from rigid leather. In 1907 one company began stitching a leather strip round the top of the shoe to form a collar, and this helped to reduce stretching. This was the beginning of the various dashes which now form standard design for modern sports shoes.

The first popular sneaker was introduced in the United States in 1917 under the name of Keds. The K is thought to stand for kids and the term is rhyming slang for ped (s), the Latin for foot. Keds were tennis shoes. In 1917 the higher boot for basketball was introduced by Converse and the shoe was known as the Converse All Stars. The popularity of tennis in the 1920s meant many adults wore canvas topped shoes for recreation.

The father of the modern running shoe was Adolf Dassler who began making shoes in 1920. By 1936 his shoes were internationally acknowledged as the best and were worn by athletes of the calibre of Jesse Owens. Dassler specialised in shoes designed for sport. After the lean war years he continued to progress and developed the training shoe made from surplus tent canvas and rubber from fuel tanks. In 1948 he founded Adidas but the company was soon to split into Addas (later known as Adidas) and Puma.

Adidas' first running shoe

To give support to the running shoe Dassler added three side strips to the shoe which first appeared in 1949. Throughout this post war period the demand for leisure footwear grew. The fitness craze of the 30s meant sneakers became associated with sports and leisure activities. In 1936 the US Basketball Team adopted the Converse Chucks as the official shoe. In the same year Dassler's running shoes were worn at the Berlin Olympics.

By the 1950s famous runners were supplied shoes free and gratis. At the discretion of the athlete, they either wore socks or not. This would imply the shoe was a very tight fit.

Nowadays modern synthetic shoes are made of lightweight mesh fabric uppers and lightweight synthetic soles chosen for maximum flexibility and comfort. Running shoes have no heel and this provides the necessary leverage for toe spring, which propels the runners legs forward. Competition between shoe companies was fierce and many athletes were unofficially approached to wear brand names. At the Melbourne Olympics in 1956, Adidas executives were alleged to have offered bribes to athletes to wear shoes made by that firm.

In 1962, New Balance introduced the first scientifically tested shoe and this weighed 96 grams. In 1968 brush spikes were introduced and replaced the traditional four spike running shoe. The 1976 Montreal Olympics was the first time an athlete was photographed endorsing his running shoes after winning 10,000 metre race. Such public endorsement was well rewarded by the companies which produced the goods.

The first Olympics to be televised was Mexico and promoters wasted no time displaying their brand insignias on the champions for the world to see. Before this shoe advertisements showing Olympians receiving their glittering prizes and wearing branded shoes had to have their faces blotted out. The sight of Tommy Smith photographed in his Puma Suedes giving the Black Power fist was a powerful image closely identified by many young people around the globe. At this time it was alleged track athletes were given monetary rewards for wearing certain competition shoes. In 1973 track athlete Steve Profontane became the first major track person to wear Nikes. Olympian Jon Anderson and tennis player Ilie Nastase soon followed as Nike wearers. Jimmy Connors won Wimbledon and US Open wearing his Nike tennis shoes. In 1978 John McEnroe signed an endorsement with the company. Many of his antics, including kiss the ground were thought to be a way of highlighting his sponsor's gear. All of which was swallowed by an eager set of consumers.

Mens Air Challenge Court 3/4.  Nike still advertise this shoe with "Take to the courts in the shoes McEnroe made famous."

When the aerobics explosion took place Reebok saw the market potential and began to make sneakers in softer materials and in colours appropriate female tastes. The shoes were less rigid in construction. In 1984/5 Nike signed Michael Jordan for $2.5 million and the Air Jordan was born. In the Atlanta Olympics, 1996 the battle between manufacturers of shoes was at its height. Reebok were the official footwear supplier but other companies launched massive promotions. Much ambush advertising was in evidence with Nike attempting to promote the rings logo on their track and sportswear kits.

Air Jordan MkI

Maurice Green personalised shoe

Are sport shoes made for feet? The answer is no. Shoes are made to a last which is a model of the foot, but not an exact anatomical replica. The last has not changed its design that much for decades and before the nineteenth hundreds, for centuries before. The last model is really a tool for mass production and whilst it is recognised as a foot, when sized up or downwards, the complete dimension of the last is proprietary changed. This means the breadth of the heel and ball increase by the same proportion for the shoe but these dimensions would not be found in the human foot. The most important feature of sport shoes is they are stable on the foot and must hold the human heel in the heel seat of the shoe. Hence the soccus or slipper component of the sport shoe exhibits the combined conventional wisdom of shoemakers from the beginnings of time. The rigours of sport necessitate the inclusion of reinforcements and this is done to a greater or lesser extent, today, by the choice of material combination. The rest is down to fashion and the manufacturer's logo. According to Hunter (1991) most shoe manufacturers imply injury is due to the anatomy of individual who happens to be constructed incorrectly. Obligingly they amend their products regularly in an attempt to counteract these mainly imaginary skeletal defects.

Shoes for different athletic events

	High Jump This type of shoe has a much thicker sole. This gives maximum support and comfort. The shoe is light and flexible which helps the athlete achieve speed over a short distance before jumping. This shoe has to have spikes. The spikes at the front help the athlete to gain speed in the run-up. The four spikes t the heel provide grip when the athlete takes off.
	Javelin This type of shoe has to be robust and durable. Athletes drag their feet along the ground during the throw. As a result the shoe has to be made from a tough, hardwearing material. Support is crucial. Javelin shoes look more like boots with protection around the ankle. Most of them feature strapping. This prevents the foot from moving in the shoe.
	Jumps and pole vault These events require speed both on the ground and in the air. In most cases straps have replaced the laces. The sole tends to be both firm and flexible allowing extra bounce in the jump. The spikes are once again very important. They provide the grip before the jump. Notice the spikes tend to be just at the front of the shoe.
	The Throws The shoe has to allow the athlete to throw and spin. A hooked strap over the toe helps to prevent the feet from moving sideways during the build up to the throw. These types of shoes do not have spikes but have a hard sole. This lengthens the lifespan of the shoe. The sole tends to have circular grooves on the balls of the feet. These help the athlete to spin
	Sprinting This type of shoe has to be lightweight and offer flexibility at the front. They all tend to have spikes, which are located at the front. They are able to cope with lots of different types of surfaces. Most Olympic Athletes have their shoes specially made.
	Long Distance These shoes have to be both durable and flexible. Comfort is a real priority, also this about the sweat factor. A mesh is sometimes added in the upper part of the shoe to allow the foot to breathe. The cushioning is also very important. Spikes are sometimes added but are not essential.

Crazy Facts Corner

• If you believe the results of a study by Russell A. Hill and Robert A. Barton (University of Durham, England), athletes wearing red uniforms experience a slight advantage over those wearing other colours.
• Gillian Swan, a British senior majoring in design at Brunel University in London, has developed sports shoes that calculate whether their owner has done enough exercise to warrant time in front of the television.
• Tom Hanks wore a pair of Nike Cortez in the Oscar-winning movie Forrest Gump.

Links:

http://podiatry.curtin.edu.au/sport.html#adidas

http://www.design-technology.org/sportsshoes1.htm

http://www.press.adidas.com/en/desktopdefault.aspx/tabid-12/searchcall-56/searchcategory-7/

http://www.odysseymagazine.com/pages/ss/funfacts.php

Researched by Angua-